The structure of the United Nations Organization
There
are six organs of UN:
·
The general assembly
·
The security council
·
The secretariat
·
The international court of justice
·
The trusteeship council
·
The economic and social council
a)
The general assembly:-
a.
Meeting of the representatives from all the
member nations;
b.
Each member can send up to five representatives;
c.
Only one vote per nation;
d.
Meets once per year; special sessions can be
called at the time of crisis;
e.
Functions;
i.
Discuss and make decisions about international
problems;
ii.
the work
of the many other UN bodie;
f.
decisions do not need a unanimous vote as they
did in the league assembly;
g.
simple majority is enough;
h.
special majority in –
i.
admitting a new member;
ii.
expelling existing members;
iii.
actions to be taken to maintain peace;
i.
all speeches debates translated into six UN
official languages-english, French, Russian, chinese, Spanish and Arabic.
b)
The security council:-
a.
Sits in permanent session and its function is
to deal with crises as they arise; if necessary, by calling on members to take
economic or military action against an aggressor
b.
Began with 5( permanent – China, france, USA,
USSR and Britain)+ 6 ( non permanent for 2 years).
c.
1965, non permanent members were increased to
10..
d.
Decisions need at least nine of the 15
members to vote in favour; but must include all 5 permanent members; this means
that any one of the permanent members can veto a decision and prevent any
action being taken;
e.
Absent is not taken as veto;
f.
In order to secure some action in the case of
veto, general assembly during the Korean war introduced ‘Uniting for peace’
resolution- if security counsil’s proposals are vetoed , the assembly could
meet within 24 hours and decide what action to take, even military intervention
if necessary.
c)
The secretariat:-
a.
Office staff of the UN;
b.
Headed by the secretary –general;
appointed for 5 years by the assembly on the recommendation of the security
council;
c.
To ensure impartiality he is not from the
major powers;
d.
He acts as the main spokesperson for the
UN ; always at the forefront of international affair; trying to sort out the
world’s problems.
d)
The international court of justice:-
a.
At the Hague
b.
Fifteen judges of different nations for 9 years term;
elected by GA and SC jointly.
c.
Achievements:-
i.
Frontier dispute between Holland and
Belgium
ii.
Disagreement between Britain and Norway
over fishing limits.
d.
Failures:-
i.
Britain accused Albania to attack greek
islands, demanded compensation; the court upheld it; Albania refused to pay, claiming that the court had no right
to judge the case.
ii.
Though the SC is responsible to implement
the court decisions, It has never done so.
e)
The trusteeship council:-
a.
Job is to govern the territories which
were given to the victorious powers during the war and prepare them for
independence
b.
By 1970 except Namibia most of the
mandates had gained their independence.
c.
South Africa refused to give the Namibia
independence as the white ruling minority did not want to loose the grip on the
territory.
d.
UN and repeatedly condemned the actions
of South Africa;
e.
At last in 1990 the pressure of black
African nationalism and world opinion forced south Africa to release its grip
on Namibia.
f)
The economic and social council ( ECOSOC
):-
a.
27 members elected by the general
assembly; 1/3rd retiring a year
b.
Organizes projects concerned with health,
education and other social and economic problems.
c.
Appointed four regional commissions (
Europe, latin America, Africa, asia and far east), and commissions on different
issues.
d.
By 1980 more than 90% of the UN’s annual
expenditure was devoted to ECOSOC activities.
How different is the UN from the League of nations
a) The
UN has been more successful
a.UN spends much more
time and resources on economic and social matter and its scope is much wider
than that of the league.
b.
UN is committed to safeguarding
individual human rights; league did not get involved in.
c. Changes
in the procedures of the general assembly and the security council; increased
power and prestige of the secretary – general have enabled the UN to take more
decisive action than the league ever achieved.
d.
Wider membership- between 1963 and 1968
no fewer than 43 new members joined the UN, mainly the emerging states of
Africa and asia; by 1993- 183 members.
b) Some
of the weaknesses of the league remain:-
a.Like league any one
member can use its veto over the decision and UN has no permanent army of his
own and has to use forces belonging to its member states.
How successful has the UN been as a peacekeeping organization
UN has been more successful
than the League in its peacekeeping efforts, especially in crisis which did not
directly involve the interests of the great powers.
1) West
new guinea, 1946:
a.UN helped to arrange
independence from Holland for the dutch East indies, which became Indonesia
b.
But fighting broke out when both
countries claimed their right over west new guinea.
c. U thant , SG appealed to both sides to re-open
negotiations; it was agreed that the territory should become part of Indonasia;
transfer was organied and policed by a UN force.
2) Palestina,
1947:
a.Dispute between Jews
and Arabs in Palestine.
b.
UN decided to divide Palestine, setting
up the Jewish state of Israel which was the UN’s most controversial decision,
not accepted by majority of arabs.
c. UN was unable to prevent series of wars
between Israel and various arab states.
d.
Though it did useful work arranging
cease-fires and providing supervisory forces, UN relief and works agency cared
for the arab refugees.
3) The
Korean war (1950-53)
a.only occasion on which
the UN was able to take decisive action in a crisis directly involving the
interests of one of the superpowers.
b.
Security council called on member states
to send help to the south .
c. In fact it was very much an American
operation .
d.
It had important results for the future
of UN;
i.
‘uniting for peace’ resolution was
passed;
ii.
A bitter attack by USSR on secretary-
general Trygvie- lew for what they considered to be his biased role in the
crisis.
4) The
suez crisis
a.President Nasser
nationalized the Suez canal in which british and French had large number of
shares.
b.
Both sent their troops to protect their
interests; at the same time Israelis invaded from the east. The real aim of 3
are to bring down Nasser.
c. Security counsil’s condemnation resolution
was vetoed by both Britain and france; general assembly by a majority condemned
the invasions .
d.
In view of the weight of opinion against
them, aggressors agreed to withdraw their troops, provided the Un ensured a
reasonable settlement.
e.
UN force of 5000 made up of troops from
ten different countries moved in.
f. The prestige of the UN was greatly
enhanced.
5) The
Hungarian rising (1956)
a.Took place at the same
time as the suez crisis, and showed the UN at its most ineffective.
b.
When the hunagarians tried to exert their
independence from Russia control, soviet troops entered hungary to crush the
revolt.
c. Hungarian
government appealed to the UN, but the Russians vetoed a security council
resolution calling for a withdrawal of their forces.
d.
The general assembly passed the same
resolution and set up a committee to investigate the problem; but the USSR
refuse to cooperate with the committee.
6) The
Belgian Congo civil war (1960-64)
a.When the Congo
dissolved into chaos immediately after gaining independence, a UN force
numbering over 20000 managed to restore some order.
b.
A special UN Congo fund was set up to
help with the recovery and development of the ravaged country.
c. But
the financial cost was so high that the UN was brought close to bankruptcy,
especially when Britain, France, Belgium refused to pay their contributions
because they were unhappy with the way the UN handled the situation.
7) Cyprus(1964):
a.A former british
colony got independence in 1960.
b.
A civil war broken out in 1963 between
majoritarian greeks and minority turks .
c. UNPKF
arrived and an uneasy peace was restored, but it needed 3000 UN troops
permanently stationed in Cyprus.
d.
1974- the greek Cypriots tried to unite
the island with Greece;this prompted the Turkish Cypriots, helped by invading
Turkish army troops, to seize the north of the island for their own territory
and went on to expel all greeks who were unfortunate enough to be living in
that area; again UN forces achieved a cease fire.
8) Kashmir
a.Lying between India
and Pakistan was claimed by both. Already in 1948 the UN had negotiated a cease
fire after fighting broke out.
b.
Indians were occupying the southern part
and Pakistan occupying north, and for next 16 years the Unpoliced the ceasefire
between the two zones.
c. When
Pakistani troops invaded the indian zone in 1965, a short war developed, but
once again the UN successfully intervened and hostilities seized.
d.
The original dispute still remained.
9) The
Czechoslovak crisis
a.A repeat performance
of the Hungarian rising .
b.
Russian and other warsaw pact troops were
sent in to enforce obedience to the USSR.
c. Security
council tried to pass a motion condemning this action, but the Russians vetoed
it.
d.
There was nothing the UN could do in view
of the USSR’s refusal to cooperate.
10) Recent
successes and failures
Successes:-
a.the United Nations
Interim Force in Lebanon( UNIFIL ) has been operating in south Lebanon since
1978 in a frontier dispute between Lebanese Christians and Palestinians. UNIFIL
has had some success, but the struggle is still going on.
b.
The UN was successful in bringing an end
to the long drawn-out war between Iran and Iraq.
c. UN
action during the Gulf war was impressive
d.
Problems in Cambodia dragged on for
nearly twenty years, but eventually the UN was able to arrange a solution.
e.
Mozambique, which gained independence
from Portugal in1975, was torn by civil war for many years. The UN now became
fully involved operating a programme of demobilizing and disarming the various
armies, distributing humanitarian relief and preparing for elections, which
took place successfully in 1994.
Failures:-
a. Somalia
disintegrated into civil war in 1991; a power struggle developed between rival
supporters of generals Aidid and Ali mohammed;
b.The situation was
chaotic as food supplies and communications broke down and thousands of
refugees were fleeing into Kenya.
c. UN
troops mainly US arrived to safeguard the aid and to restore law and order by
disarming the ‘warlords’.
d.Aided, was not prepare
to be disarmed .
e.UN troops began to
suffer casualties; americans withdrew their troops and UN troops followed it.
f. A
similar situation developed in bosnia .
Successful UN military intervention , like korea and
the gulf war , only happened when UN troops actively supported one side against
the other.
What other work is the UN responsible for?
The majority of its work is
concerned with its less spectacular aims of
safeguarding human rights and encouraging economic, social, educational
and cultural progress throughout the world.
a) The
human rights commission
a.Works under the
supervision of ECOSOC.
b.
Tries to ensure that all governments
treat their people in a civilized way .
c. A 30 point Universal Declaration of Human
Rights was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948.
d.
The most important rights are:
i.
A standard of living high enough to keep him
and his family in good health;
ii.
Be free from slavery, racial
discrimination, arrest and imprisonment without trial and torture.
iii.
Have a fair trial in public and to be
presumed innocent until proved guilty;
iv.
Move about freely in his country and be
able to leave the country;
v.
Get married , have children, work, own
property and vote in elections;
vi.
Have opinions and express them freely.
e.
Later the commission produced a
Declaration of Rights of the Child in 1959.
i.
Adequate food and medical care;
ii.
Free education;
iii.
Adequate opportunity for relaxation and
play
iv.
Protection from racial, religious and
other type of discrimination.
f. All
the members are expected to produce a report on Human Rights for every 3 years.
g. Those who don’t
produce the report, UN declare these countries as the most violators of the
Human rights; the hope that pressure of world opinion will influence the
governments concerned.
b) The
International Labour Organization(ILO):-
Head quarters
– Geneva
Its principles:
·
Every person is entitled to a job;
·
Equal opportunities for everybody
·
Minimum standards of decent working
conditions;
·
Right to organize themselves into unions
·
There should be full social security
provision for all workers
a.
Nobel prize for peace in 1969.
b.
It sends out experts to demonstrate new
equipment and techniques, sets up training centres in developing countries.
c) The
world health organization:
a.It aims to bring the
world to a point where all its peoples are not just free of disease, nut are at
a high level of health.
b.
WHO provides money to train doctors ,
nurses and other health workers for developing countries, keeps governments
informed about new drugs, and provides free contraceptive pills for women in
third world countries.
c. One of its successful achievement was
complete elimination of smallpox in the 1980’s.
d) The
food and Agriculture Organization(FAO):-
a.Aims to raise living
standards by encouraging improvements in agricultural production.
b.
FAO experts show people in poor countries
how to increase food production by the use of fertilizers, new techniques and
new machinery, and cash is provided to fund new projects.
e) The
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
a.Headquarters- paris
b.
Encourage the spread of literacy;
c. Fosters
international co-operation between scientists, scholars and artists in all
fields.
d.
Working on the theory that the best way
to avoid war is by educating people’s minds in the pursuit of peace.
f) The
United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund ( UNICEF )
a.To help improve the
health and living standards of children all over the world, especially in
poorer countries.
b.
Works closely with the WHO, setting up
health centres, training health workers, and running health education and
sanitation schemes.
c. UNICEF
launched its ‘ child health revolution’ campaign which was designed to reduce
the child death rate by simple methods such as encouraging breast feeding and
immunizing babies against common diseases such as measles, diphtheria, polio
and tetanus.
g)
The United Nations Relief and Works
Agency ( UNRWA )
a.To deal with the
problem of Arab refugees from Palestine who were forced to leave their homes
when Palestine was divided up to form the new state of Israel .
h) Financial
and economic agencies
a.International monitory
fund( IMF)
i.
Designed to foster co-operation between
nations to encourage the growth of trade and the full development of nation’s
economic potential.
ii.
It allows short-term loans to countries
in financial difficulties, provided that their economic policies meet with the
IMF’s approval and that they are prepared to change policies if the IMF thinks
it necessary.
iii.
There was a great resentment among the
poorer nations about changing policies. EX:- Jamaica and Tanzania, were
required to change their socialist policies before loans were allowed.
b.
The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development ( the world bank )
i.
Provides loans for specific development
projects, such as building dams to generate electricity, introducing new
agricultural techniques and family planning campaign.
ii.
Since USA, provides the largest share of
the cash for the bank, controls its decision.
iii.
When Poland, Czechoslovakia applied for
loans, they were both refused because they were communist states. Both resigned
from the Bank and IMF.
c. The
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT):-
i.
1947- member states of the UN agreed to
reduce some of their tariffs in order to encourage international trade.
d.
The United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development (UNCTAD)
i.
To encourage the development of industry
in the third world cnd to pressurize rich countries to buy third world
products.
Verdict on the United Nations Organization:-
Still the world is full of
economic and social problems and acts of aggression and wars continued.
The UN failures were caused to
some extent by weaknesses in its system.
(a) The
lack of a permanent UN army:-
a.It is difficult to the
UN to prevail upon an aggressive powerful nation. If persuasion and pressure of
world opinion fail, the UN has to rely on member nations to provide troops to
enable it to enforce decisions.
b.
Ex- USSR was able to ignore UN demands
for the withdrawal of Russian troops from hungary and Afghanistan .
c. UN
involvement in Somalia and bosnia showed the impossibility of the UN being able
to stop a war when the warring parties were not ready to stop fighting.
(b) When
should the UN become involved?
a.This is the problem
involved during the course of war.
b.
Sometimes it hangs back too long, so that
the problem becomes more difficult to solve;
c. Sometimes
it hesitates so long that it scarcely becomes involved at all, as happened in
Vietnam war and war in angola.
d.
This left some states to put more faith
in their own regional organizations such as NATO for keeping the peace, and
many agreements were worked out without involving the UN ; ex- the end of the
Vietnam war , the Camp David peace between Israel and Egypt in 1979, and the
settlement of the Rhodesia in the same year.
e.
Part of the problem was that the security
council was hampered by the veto which its permanent members could use.
f. Although
the uniting for peace’ resolution could offset this to some extent, the veto
could still cause long delays before decisive action was taken.
(c) The
increased membership of the UN during the 1970’s
a.By 1970 members from
the third world were in clear majority.
b.
As these nations began to work more and
more together western nations began to criticize the Third World bloc for being
too ‘political’;
c. 1974,
UNESCO passed resolutions condemning ‘ colonialism’ and ‘imperialism’.
d.
When the western block introduced a
general assembly motion condemning terrorism , it was defeated by the arab
states and their supporters.
(d) There
is a wastage of effort and resources among the agencies
a.Critics claim that the
WHO and the FAO overlap too much.
b.
The FAO wad criticized in 1984 for
spending too much on administration.
c. GATT
and UNCTAD even seem to be working against each other; GATT tries to eliminate
tariffs and anything else which restricts trade, whereas UNCTAD tries to get
preferential treatment for the products of third world countries.
(e) The
UN has always been short of funds
a.Entirely dependent on
contribution based on tis general wealth an dability to pay.
b.
Many member states have refused to pay
from time to time, either because of financial difficulties of their own , or
as a mark of disapproval of UN policies.
c. The
americans wanted the countries which gave most to have more say in how the
money was spent, but most smaller members rejected this as undemocratic.
d.
1987, this demand got succeeded.
In spite of all these criticisms,
it would be wrong to write the UN off as
a failure .
·
Provides assembly to 180 countries, can come
together and talk to each other. Even the smallest nation has a chance to make
itself heard in a world forum.
·
It has been successful in bringing some wars
to an end more quickly and prevented further conflict. A great deal of human
suffering and bloodshed have been prevented by the actions of the UN peace
keeping forces and refugee agencies.
·
Done valuable work investigating and
publicizing human rights violations under repressive regimes like the military
governments of Chile and Zaire and influenced governments by bringing
international pressure to bear on them.
·
Stimulated international cooperation on
economic, social and technical matters.
What about the future of the UN?
·
many people thought that with the end of the
cold war, most of the world’s problems would disappear; this did not happened;
there seemed to be more conflicts than ever before; there was still a vitally
important role for the UN to play as international peace keeper.
Suggestions:-
Ø
UN should develop a better system of
intelligence to enable it to prevent conflicts breaking out
Ø
Peace keeping operations need to be speeded
up- sometimes as long as four months can elapse between the security council
deciding to send troops.
Ø
All troops need to be trained to the same
high standard; the creation a core military organization, overseeing and
co-ordinating the training of UN peace keeping forces, would go a long way
towards standardizing the levels of training and experience of the troops which
the UN can call upon.
Ø
UN could make more use of other , regional
organizations such as NATO and the Arab league.
Ø
The UN should monitor and restrict the flow
of arms to potential trouble-spots ; UN should limit the international sale of
arms, through the adoption of a unified code of conduct for the major arms
exporter.
Ø
The permanent membership of the security
council should be widened; this would restore harmony and ensure wider
co-operation and goodwill.
No comments:
Post a Comment
Thank you for your comments